Kamis, 09 Desember 2010

GLOSSARY of CLIMATE CHANGE Part II

A mandated restraint, in a scheduled time frame, that puts a ‘ceiling’ on the total amount of anthropogenic greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions that can be released into the atmosphere. The Kyoto Protocol mandates caps on the GHG emissions released by developed countries listed in Annex B.

The phrase emissions permit is sometimes used to refer to the non-transferable or tradable entitlement bestowed by an administrative authority (intergovernmental organization, central or local government agency) to a regional (country, sub-national) or a sectoral (an individual firm) entity to emit a pollutant within specified constraints. In some settings, an emissions permit is required for activities that create emissions, and the operator responsible for emissions must acquire and surrender emissions allowances in amount equal to actual emissions.

An ERU represents one tonne of CO2-equivalent greenhouse gas emissions reductions 2achieved through a Joint Implementation project. It can be used to meet an Annex B Party’s emission commitment or as the unit of trade in greenhouse gas emissions trading systems.

A plausible representation of the future development of emissions of substances that are radiatively active (e.g.greenhouse gases, aerosols), based on a coherent and internally consistent set of assumptions about driving forces (such as demographic and socio-economic development, technological change) and their key relationships. Concentration scenarios, derived from emissions scenarios, are used as input into a climate models to compute climate projections.

Key to the identification of Kyoto lands is a definition of forest that is consistent for all Parties. This definition is critical to the accounting of sources and sinks under the Kyoto Protocol (Articles 3.3 and 3.4). There are many definitions of forest, based on land-use status (administrative/cultural records) or a minimum threshold of canopy cover and/or tree height. None, however, were specifically designed for carbon accounting as required under the Protocol. This definition and the implications of using different definitions are addressed in detail in Chapter 3 of the IPCC Special Report on LULUCF. The IPCC 2006 Guidelines for National GHG Inventories provide a broad, non-prescriptive definition of forest lands, but leave it to individual countries to decide which of their lands they will designate as forest.

Forest management is the application of biological, physical, quantitative, managerial, social and policy principles to the regeneration, tending, utilization and conversion of forests to meet specified goals and objectives while maintaining forest productivity. Management intensity spans the range from wilderness set-asides toshort-rotation woody cropping systems. Forest management encompasses the full cycle of regeneration, tending, protection, harvest, utilization and access. (From IPCC Special Report on LULUCF.)

Fossil Fuels
Carbon-based fuels that have accumulated in geological deposits over very long periods, including coal, oil and natural gas.

Global Climate Observing System, or GCOS
An international system established in 1992 to ensure that the observations and information needed to address climate change issues are obtained and made available to all users.

Global Environment Facility, or GEF
A jointly funded programme established by developed countries at the time of the Rio Summit to meet their obligations under various international environmental treaties. GEF serves as the interim financial mechanism for the UNFCCC, in particular to cover the cost of reporting by non-Annex I countries. It provides funds to complement traditional development assistance by covering the additional or ‘agreed incremental costs’incurred by non-Annex I countries, when a national,regional or global development project also targets global environmental objectives such as those which address biodiversity.

Global Warming
The increase in the Earth’s temperature, in part due to emissions of greenhouse gases associated with human activities such as burning fossil fuels, biomass burning,cement manufacture, cow and sheep rearing, deforestation and other land-use changes. Suggested alternate definition: The observed increase in global average surface temperature, whether attributable to natural or human-induced causes.
Global Warming Potential, or GWP
A time dependent index used to compare the radiative forcing, on a mass basis, of an impulse of a specific greenhouse gas relative to that of CO2. Gases included in the Kyoto Protocol are weighted in the first commitment period according to their GWP over a 100-year time horizon as published in the 1995 Second Assessment Report of the IPCC. In the 2001 TAR, the values were updated slightly, so that a kilogram of methane for example has a radiative force of about 23 times greater than that of a kilogram of CO2. The GWP of CO2 is defined as 1, thus methane has a GWP of 23 over the 100-year time horizon.

Greenhouse Effect
The trapping of heat by naturally occurring (water vapour, carbon dioxide, nitrous oxide, methane andozone) and synthetic (CFCs, SF6, HFCs, PFCs) atmospheric gases that absorb infrared radiation. The natural greenhouse effect keeps the earth about 30°C (55°F)warmer than if these gases did not exist.

Greenhouse Gases, or GHGs
Gases in the earth’s atmosphere that absorb and re-emit infra-red radiation. These gases occur through both natural and human-influenced processes. The major GHG is water vapour. Other primary GHGs include carbon dioxide, nitrous oxide, methane, ozone and CFCs.

Hot Air
A few countries, notably Russia and the Ukraine, have emissions allocations under the Kyoto Protocol that appear to be well in excess of their anticipated emissions in the first commitment period (as a result of economic downturn since the baseline year of 1990). The potentially excess allocation is referred to as hot air.Under the Kyoto Protocol it could be traded with other Parties.

Intergovernmental Organization, or IGO
Organizations constituted of governments. Examples include The World Bank, the Organization of Economic Cooperation and Development (OECD), the International Civil Aviation Organization (ICAO). The Convention allows accreditation of these IGOs to attend the negotiating sessions.

Panel established in 1988 by governments under the auspices of the World Meteorological Organization and the UN Environment Programme. It prepares assessments,reports and guidelines on: the science of climate change and its potential environmental, economic and social impacts; technological developments; possible national and international responses to climate change; and cross-cutting issues. It is currently organized into 3 Working Groups which address: I) Science; II) Impacts, Adaptation and Vulnerability; and III) Mitigation. There is also a Task Force to develop methodologies for GHG inventories.

International Energy Agency, or IEA
Paris-based organization formed in 1973, it now has a membership of 25 countries (OECD members). The IEA’s original purpose was to manage future oil supply short-falls. They have also agreed to share energy information, to coordinate their energy policies and to cooperate in the development of energy programmes. Today the core mission of the IEA remains unchanged, but it has extended its activities to include providing energy statistics and other information and analysis worldwide,as well as reporting regularly on the energy policies of its Member States and those of selected non-Members. Through a variety of implementing agreements, the IEA is also a focal point for sharing information on emerging energy technology.

Joint Implementation, or JI
Jointly implemented projects that limit or reduce emissions or enhance sinks are permitted among developed countries under Article 6 of the Kyoto Protocol. JI activity is also permitted in Article 4.2(a) of the Convention,between all Parties. As defined in the Kyoto Protocol JI allows developed countries, or companies from those countries, to cooperate on projects to reduce greenhouse gas emissions and share the emissions reduction units (ERUs). As JI occurs between Annex B countries(who have emissions caps), no new emissions units are generated (unlike the case with projects under the Clean Development Mechanism). JI can be viewed as an investment for ERUs swap. There is a two-track procedure for approval of JI projects. Track 1 applies if both Partiesare in compliance with their Kyoto Protocol obligations,in which case JI projects are approved by the governments involved. Track 2 applies if one or both Parties are out of compliance, in which case the JI project must be reviewed by an accredited independent agency, using a process similar to that used for the Clean Development Mechanism. (See also ‘Activities Implemented Jointly’.)

Kyoto Basket
Under the Kyoto Protocol, Parties have committed to control emissions of a ‘basket’ of six GHGs. This ‘basket’includes carbon dioxide, methane, nitrous oxide, HFCs,PFCs and SF6. The arrangement is meant to give the flexibility which would enable a Party to increase emissions of any gas in the ‘basket’ provided commensurate reductions were made in another gas in the ‘basket’.

Kyoto Lands
The Kyoto Protocol describes land use, land-use change and forestry activities that require or allow the net GHG emissions from sinks to be accounted for by Parties in meeting their emission reduction commitments. The lands on which these activities take place are designated as Kyoto lands.
Kyoto Mechanisms
(formerly known as Flexibility Mechanisms)Procedures that allow Annex 1 Parties to meet their commitments under the Kyoto Protocol based on actions outside their own borders. As potentially market-based mechanisms they have the potential to reduce the economic impacts of greenhouse gas emission reduction requirements. They include Joint Implementation(Article 6), the Clean Development Mechanisms(Article 12) and Emissions Trading (Article 17).

Kyoto Protocol
The Protocol, drafted during the Berlin Mandate process,that requires countries listed in its Annex B (developed nations) to meet differentiated reduction targets for their emissions of a ‘basket’ of greenhouse gases (see ‘Kyoto Basket’) relative to 1990 levels by 2008–12. It was adopted by all Parties to the UNFCCC in Kyoto, Japan,in December 1997 and entered into force on 16 February 2005.

LULUCF
Land Use, Land-Use Change and Forestry—see ‘ARD Activities’ and ‘Kyoto Lands’.

Market-based Incentives
Measures intended to use price mechanisms (e.g., taxes and tradable permits) to reduce greenhouse gas emissions.

International agreement under UNEP which entered into force in January 1989 to phase out the use of ozone-depleting compounds such as CFCs, halons, methyl chloroform, carbon tetrachloride, HCFCs and methyl bromide.

MOP
Meeting of the Parties—a commonly used but incorrect name for the COP/MOP. See ‘Conference of the Parties serving as the meeting of the Parties’.

National Action Plans
Plans submitted to the Conference of the Parties (COP) by all Parties outlining the steps that they have adopted to limit their anthropogenic GHG emissions. Countries must submit these plans as a condition of participating in the Convention and, subsequently, must communicate their progress to the COP regularly. The National Action Plans form part of the National Communications which include the national inventory of greenhouse gas (GHG)sources and sinks.

National Adaptation Plan of Action, or N
In 2001, COP-7 established the National Adaptation Plans of Action (NAPAs) program to provide a process for Least Developed Countries (LDCs) to identify and prioritize their adaptation needs.

National Communication
A document submitted in accordance with the Convention (and the Protocol) by which a Party informs other Parties of activities undertaken to address climate change. Most developed countries have now submitted their fourth national communications; most developing countries have completed their first national communication and are in the process of preparing their second.

National Registry
Each Annex B Party to the Kyoto Protocol has to establish a national registry to account for the holding of allowances by the Party, as well as by any entities authorised by the Party to hold them. It also contains accounts for setting units aside for compliance purposes (retirement) and removing units from the system (cancellation). Transfers and acquisitions between account holders or between Parties will take place through these national registries. National registries are linked to the ITL which monitors the transfer of allowances between registries.
Natural Regeneration
Growth or re-emergence of the native vegetation in a place after it has been destroyed of degraded, resulting form protection of area from biotic interference. Regeneration may proceed from stumps, cut, bushes, grazed, from root suckers or from seeds (Siyag, P.R., 1998)
Natural succession of forest plantations on temporarily unstocked lands that are considered as forest (FAO, 2001)
Renewal of trees by self-sown seeds or natural vegetative means (Ford-Robinson, cited in Wadsworth 1997) (ITTO, 2002)

Non-Governmental Organization, or NGO
NGOs can include registered non-profit organizations and associations from business and industry, environmental groups, cities and municipalities, academics,and social and activist organizations. Under the UN, NGOs must be accredited to observe its activities and, to do so, they must meet certain qualifications. IPIECA has UN ECOSOC Category II Non-Governmental Organization consultative status.

Observers
Agencies, non-governmental organizations, and Governments not Parties to the Convention which are permitted to attend, but not vote, at meetings of the COP and its subsidiary bodies. Observers may include the United Nations specialized agencies; other intergovernmental organizations (IGOs) such as the International Atomic Energy Agency; and accredited non-governmental organizations (NGOs).

Plantation
Forest stands established by planting or/and seedling in the process of afforestation or reforestation. They are either: I) of introduced species (all planted stands) or; ii) intensively managed stands of indigenous species, which meet all the following criteria: one or two species at plantation, even age class, regular spacing. (FAO, 1998)
A large group of trees planted in a tract of land, usually fenced or delineated with a boundary. Planting of nursery raised seedlings is necessary to supplement the natural vegetation growth, esp. in arid and semi-arid areas.(Siyag, P.R., 1998)
A forest established by planting or/and seeding in the process of afforestation or reforestation. It consists of introduced species or, in some cases, indigenous species. (FAO, 2001)
A plantation forest may be afforested land or a secondary forest established by planting or direct seeding. A gradient exists among plantation forests from even-aged, single species monocultures of exotic species with a fibre production objective to mixed species native to the site with both fibre and biodiversity objectives. This gradient will probably also reflect the capability of the plantation forest to maintain "normal" local biological diversity. (UNEP/CBD/SBSTTA, 2001)
(Industrial) Plantation 
Intensively managed forest stands established to provide material for sale locally or outside the immediate region, by planting or/and seeding in the process of afforestation or reforestation.
(Home and farm) Plantation 
Managed forest, established for subsistence or local sale by planting or/and seeding in the process of afforestation or reforestation, with even age class and regular spacing. Usually small scale and selling, it at all, in a dispersed market.
(Environmental) Plantation 
Managed forest stand, established primarily to provide environmental stabilization or amenity value, by planting or/and seedling in the process of afforestation or reforestation, usually with even age class and regular spacing.(Poulsen, J. 2002)

Protocol
An international agreement linked to an existing convention, but as a separate and additional agreement which must be signed and ratified by the Parties to the convention concerned. Protocols typically strengthen a convention by adding new, more detailed commitments.

Radiative Forcing
A change in the balance between incoming solar radiation and outgoing infra-red and short-wave radiation.Without any radiative forcing, solar radiation absorbed by the earth would continue to be approximately equal to the infra-red radiation emitted from the earth. The addition of greenhouse gases absorbs an increased fraction of the infra-red radiation in the atmosphere, re-radiating it and creating a warming influence. Radiative Forcing is computed as the change in flux at the top of the troposphere, compared to pre-industrial atmospheric conditions.

Ratification
Formal approval, often by a Parliament or other national legislature, of a convention, protocol, or treaty, enabling a country to become a Party. Ratification is a separate process that occurs after a country has signed an agreement. The instrument of ratification must be deposited with a ‘depositary’ (in the case of the UNFCCC, the UN Secretary-General) to start the countdown to becoming a Party (in the case of the Convention, the countdown is 90 days).

Reclamation
Using one or more exotic species to achieve stability and productivity. That is, there is no attempt to restore any of the original biodiversity at the site. (David Lamb, 1994)
Returning disturbed lands to a form and productivity that will be ecologically balanced, often in conformity with a predetermined reclamation plan. (USDA Forest Service, 1997)
To recover productivity at a degraded site using mostly exotic tree species. The original biodiversity is not recovered although the protective function and many of the original ecological services may be re-established. (Gilmour, D.A. et al., 2000)
Gain of land from the sea, or wetlands, or other water bodies, and restoration of productivity or use to lands that have been degraded by human activities or impaired by natural phenomena. (PEENRA website)
To recover productivity (but little of the original biodiversity) at a degraded site. In time, the protective function and many of the original ecological services may be re-established. Reclamation is often done with exotic species but may also involve native species. (UNEP World Conservation Monitoring Center website)
The process designed to adapt a natural ecosystem to serve a utilitarian human purpose. It may put a natural ecosystem to a new or altered use, most often using introduced plants. It is often used to refer to processes that replace native ecosystems and convert them to agricultural, mining or urban uses. (USDA-NRCS website)

Reforestation
The act or process of re-establishing a forest on land that had been deforested in the last 50 years.
Reestablishment of a tree crop on forested land (USDA Forest Service, 1997)
Artificial establishment of forest on lands which carried forest before. (FAO, 1998)
Establishing cover of trees, shrubs and grasses on a tract of land that had a forest cover on it until fifty years ago or later. Often the same species are used that had existed earlier. (Siyag, P.R., 1998)
The re-establishment of forest formations after a temporary condition with less than 10% canopy cover due to human-induced or natural perturbations. (FAO, 2000)
The re-establishment of trees and understorey plants at a site previously occupied by forest cover (Gilmour, D.A. et al., 2000)
Establishment of forest plantations on temporarily unstocked lands that are considered as forest. (FAO, 2001)
The re-growth of forest after a temporary (<10 years) condition with less than 10% canopy cover due to human-induced or natural perturbations (FAO 2000). (UNEP/CBD/SBSTTA, 2001)
The direct human-induced conversion of non-forested land to forested land through planting, seeding and/or the human-induced promotion of natural seed sources, on land that was forested but that has been converted to non-forested land. For the first commitment period, reforestation activities will be limited to reforestation occurring on those lands that did not contain forest on 31 December 1989. (UNFCCC, 2001)
The re-establishment of trees and understorey plants at a site immediately after the removal of natural forest cover (ITTO, 2002)
The act of planting trees on bare or open land which is used to be covered with forest growth (PEENRA website)
Ways of re-establishing forest cover. (UNEP World Conservation Monitoring Center website)

Rehabilitation
Using some of the original species plus, where necessary, exotic species to reforest the site. In this case there is no attempt to recreate the original ecosystem, rather the objective is to return the forest to a stable and productive condition. (David Lamb, 1994)
The process of making land "productive" again. An alternative ecosystem is created with different structure and function than the original ecosystem. It usually has low species diversity and includes introduced species. It requires maximal human input to exist. Land uses include parklands, croplands, and commercial forests. (NSW-EPA, 1995)
Actions taken to restore or reclaim site productivity, water quality or other values (USDA Forest Service, 1997)
Rehabilitation is making the land useful again after a disturbance. It involves the recovery of ecosystem functions and processes in a degraded habitat. Rehabilitation does not necessarily reestablish the predisturbance condition, but does involve establishing geological and hydrologically stable landscapes that support the natural ecosystem mosaic. (Willamette Restoration Initiatives, 1999)
To re-establish the productivity and some, but not necessarily all, of the plant and animal species thought to be originally present at a site. For ecological or economic reasons the new forest might also include species not originally present at the site. The protective function and many of the ecological services of the original forest may be re-established. (Gilmour, D.A. et al., 2000)
A management strategy applied in degraded forest lands that aims at restoring the capacity of a forest to produce products and service.(ITTO, 2002)
To return an area of land or a road or track surface to an original, proper and stable condition. This may involve reshaping, spreading topsoil, construction of banks and revegetation. (Northern Rivers Private Forestry website)
To re-establish the productivity and some, but not necessarily all, of the plant and animal species thought to be originally present at a site. For ecological or economic reasons the new forest might also include species not originally present at the site. In time, the protective function and many of the ecological services of the original forest may be re-established. (UNEP World Conservation Monitoring Center website)
Removal Unit, or RMU
A Kyoto Protocol unit equal to 1 metric tonne of carbon dioxide equivalent. RMUs are generated in Annex B Parties by LULUCF activities that absorb carbon dioxide. Annex B Parties can use RMUs to help meet their Kyoto Protocol commitments.

Renewables
Energy sources that are constantly renewed by natural process. These include non-carbon technologies such as solar energy, hydropower and wind as well as technologies based on biomass. Life cycle analyses are required to assess the extent to which such biomass-based technologies may limit net carbon emissions.

Restoration
Attempting to recreate the original forest ecosystem by reassembling the original complement of plants and animals that once occupied the site. (David Lamb, 1994)
Work necessary to restore a facility to the original constructed condition or to an acceptable condition concerning any damage resulting from natural or human causes, which exceeds that which normally occurs during annual maintenance. (USDA Forest Service, 1997)
Restoration is the process of repairing damage to the diversity and dynamics of ecosystems. Ecological restoration is the process of returning an ecosystem as closely as possible to predisturbance conditions and functions. Implicit in this definition is that ecosystems are naturally dynamic; it is therefore not possible to recreate a system exactly. The restoration process reestablishes the general structure, function, and dynamic but self-sustaining behavior of the ecosystem. Restoration differs from rehabilitation in that restoration is a holistic process not achieved through the isolated manipulation of individual elements. While restoration aims to return an ecosystem to a former natural condition, rehabilitation implies putting the landscape to a new or altered use to serve a particular human purpose. (Willamette Restoration Initiatives, 1999)
To re-establish the presumed structure, productivity and species diversity of the forest originally present at a site. The ecological processes and functions of the restored forest will closely match those of the original forest. (Gilmour, D.A. et al., 2000)
The process of assisting the recovery of an ecosystem that has been degraded, damaged, or destroyed (Society for Ecological Restoration, 2002)
A management strategy applied in degraded primary forest areas. Forest restoration aims to restore the forest to its state before degradation (same function, structure and composition).(ITTO, 2002)
(Restored natural/secondary forest) 
Restored forest, through either planting or/and seeding, or through natural regenerating process, where restoration aims to create a species mix and ecology approaching that of the original natural forest. (Poulsen, J. 2002)
(Forest Landscape) Restoration 
A planned process that aims to regain ecological integrity and enhance human wellbeing in deforested or degraded forest landscapes. (WWF and IUCN, 2001)
To re-establish the presumed structure, productivity and species diversity of the forest originally present at a site. (In time, the ecological processes and functions of the restored forest will closely match those of the original forest). (UNEP World Conservation Monitoring Center website)
The process of intentionally altering a site to establish a defined, indigenous, historic ecosystem. The goal of this process is to emulate the structure, function, diversity, and dynamics of the specified ecosystem. (USDA-NRCS website)

Sinks (UNFCCC definition)
Any process or activity or mechanism which removes a greenhouse gas or a precursor from the atmosphere.

Stern Review
Study commissioned by the UK Chancellor of the Exchequer in which Sir Nicholas Stern examined the economics of climate change. Nicholas Stern presented his findings at the second Dialogue workshop.

Subsidiary Body for Implementation, or S
Established as a permanent standing body of the UNFCCC, the SBI develops recommendations to assist the Conference of the Parties in assessing and reviewing the implementation of the Convention.

Sustainable Development
Development that meets the needs of the present without compromising the ability of future generations to meet their own needs.

Vulnerability
The degree to which a system is susceptible to, or unable to cope with, adverse effects of climate change, including climate variability and extremes. Vulnerability is a function of the character, magnitude, and rate of climate change and variation to which a system is exposed, its sensitivity, and its adaptive capacity.

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